Sustainability Definition Brundtland 1987
Sustainability in Government Agencies
Develop social capital
To a large extent, the social fabric of a community is defined by the connectedness among its members – what social researchers call the social capital of a community. Government can play a significant role in developing social capital by providing an infrastructure that promotes interaction and involvement. Robert Putnam, noted professor at Harvard and author of Bowling Alone and Better Together, has documented an interesting phenomenon in the US. His research shows a steady decline in civic participation and social connectedness in the US since the 1970s as measured by a drop in membership in civic organizations and clubs, attendance at public meetings, involvement in school groups, voter registration and even a decline in social gatherings like picnics and card parties. He draws compelling correlations between these indicators and other trends such as increasing crime rates.
Interestingly this trend has been consistently documented in every American city save one. Portland, Oregon has succeeded where every other American city has failed in engaging its population and actually increasing civic involvement. Steven Johnson, a professor in the Urban and Public Affairs department at Portland State University, built on Putnam’s research to examine what was going on in Oregon.
Though the reasons for the countervailing trend are complex, Johnson cites the state’s opportunities for involvement in formal activities such as neighborhood associations (that have surprising authority over neighborhood governance), watershed councils (that work across territories and agency jurisdictions to protect and restore Oregon waterways) and a multitude of public hearings that give citizens a voice in major decisions such as school management, urban growth boundaries and civic projects. Johnson also believes that along with these formal opportunities communities need to create informal gatherings that bring people together in social settings to enable them to develop holistic relationships. People who have had a social relationship understand each other better and are less likely to fight with one another when it comes to doing the formal work of shaping community policies. While this level of involvement often seems cumbersome and time-consuming, the result is actually less government as the community takes more direct responsibility for its governance, requiring less regulation and interference.
Denmark also has a strong system for civic involvement. Danish citizens engage in dialogue about the impacts of policy decisions, giving them a voice in shaping their communities on important public policy issues. When a new technology is presented to the Danish government for approval, the Board of Technology invites a number of ordinary people, from various backgrounds, to serve as a sort of jury. In 1992, for example, such a jury tackled the question of genetic engineering in animal breeding.
The jurors sat through two background briefings, then went on to hear and cross-examine witnesses for and against: scientists, experts on the social effects of technology and representatives of interest groups. After due deliberation, they gave their verdict to a national press conference. Among other things, they found against using genetic manipulation to make new kinds of pets, but in favour of using it to help find a cure for human cancer. Though their decision was not binding, it had enough moral weight to sway parliamentary votes on the matter.
Processes like these can ensure that policy decisions are thoroughly weighed and can also provide a means of educating the public.
Resources:
Putnam, Robert D. (2000) Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon and Schuster.
ICLEI is working on methods to reduce violence, insecurity and conflict in communities. Go to http://www.iclei.org/
Provide incentives and grants for needed research
Government in the US used to be a major source of funding for research. Over the last couple of decades, however, this task has increasingly devolved to the private sector. There are areas where business is well suited to this task. But there are a number of drawbacks in government taking a back seat. First, company research is focused on those areas where they expect to make huge profits. This has tended to ignore important issues where there may not be a lucrative market, for example diseases of the poor such as malaria, which in turn causes human misery in the developing world.
Second, business prefers patentable solutions over natural ones, creating even more synthetic or genetically modified products to worry about. And third, and perhaps more problematic, businesses focus on issues that are likely to pay off relatively quickly, while it will require long-term research and development to solve some of our sustainability-related challenges. Solar photovoltaic’s, for example, are still not cost competitive in many markets (as long as externalities are ignored) except in remote areas far from existing power lines. We need to increase the efficiency of these solar cells and also ramp up production to bring the costs down. Similar problems have been encountered with social issues. Governments around the world currently have to spur funding for the development of vaccines and antiviral drugs to combat the threat of a bird flu pandemic.
The Golden Carrot was a programme in 1993 that jump-started research on more efficient appliances in the US. While it was initiated by utility companies, it still provides one successful model. Rather than offsetting the cost of research and development, they offered an incentive of $30.7 million to a single manufacturer that could design, build and
distribute refrigerators that were 25–50 per cent more energy efficient than comparable models. This incentive got the attention of the entire industry. Today refrigerators are 30 per cent more energy efficient than they were prior to this programme.
Create audacious goals and policies
A clear compelling vision gets people excited and also provides business with some certainty about the future. At least 13 US states and a number of nations have set renewable electricity standards, goals for the percentage of energy which must come from such cleaner sources as wind, geothermal and solar.34 Iceland has upped the ante by
setting a goal to be the first hydrogen economy. Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger committed California to reducing greenhouse gases by 80 per cent below 1990 levels by 2050. Portland, Oregon has a goal to have the city government served by 100 per cent renewable power by 2010. Switzerland is working toward a 2000-watt society, an idea that started as an academic exercise but has since gained the support of the federal government. These goals often generate excitement and coalesce different groups so that they can collaborate Government is also in a position to clarify priorities and create a context for a high quality of life. The US has the dubious honour of having edged ahead of Japan as the most workaholic nation. Compare that with policies in the European Union, where a directive prescribes four weeks of vacation for all. The Netherlands has a ‘1.5 jobs’ policy for parents with children, encouraging them to have at least one parent stay home at least part time.
They offer five to seven weeks’ paid holiday plus ten days’ unpaid personal time. Part-time work is encouraged instead of being blight on your career, with approximately 40 per cent of the workforce working this way. Benefits are prorated but the national health plan protects workers if they become ill. It is not policy to maximize GDP; instead the goal is to maximize quality of life. In the US people seem to have forgotten what an economy is for. Those who say that Europe, with these ‘socialistic’ practices, can’t compete should consider that many US companies invest heavily in Europe. If Europe’s practices were really that unprofitable, it’s unlikely this would be the case.
Resources:
Pollar, Odette (1999) Take Back Your Life. Conair Press.
Sustainable Communities Network.
Healthy Cities Network (World Health Organization).
ICLEI: Local Governments for Sustainability, http://www.iclei.org/
Sponsor award programmes
Award programmes can often help get a new concept anchored. In the US the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award created a lot of interest in total quality management practices while also providing a useful self-assessment tool. The Environmental Protection Agency’s green chemistry award programme is serving this same need and generating inspiring stories.
Individual states or local governments have also created their own award programmes. For example, New Mexico created the Green Zia programme, an environmental performance award modeled on the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award.
One of the more creative efforts we’ve seen is in Oakland, California. Waste Management, KTVU Channel 2 and Alameda County are collaborating, using the reality show craze to educate the public. At the time of writing they are seeking contestants to be part of a zero waste challenge reality show where four families will compete for four weeks to reduce their waste streams. We just hope they keep the cameras rolling at night lest contestants leave bags of rubbish on one another’s doorsteps after midnight!
Resources:
Green Zia, www.mnenv.state.nm.us/Green_Zia
The European Campaign of Sustainable Cities and Towns sponsors a Sustainable City Award, www.global-vision.org.
Make information visible
Sometimes all government needs to do is to make certain data easily retrievable. The Toxic Release Inventory forced US companies to report their emissions. While the method of reporting was in some ways misleading, no company wanted to be at the top of the list: just the threat of the information becoming public prompted changes in behaviour.
More often, governments compile important information to encourage rather than discourage behaviour, helping the public make better decisions. For example, in both the US and the UK, groups are publishing green ratings for cars.
Similarly, labelling requirements can make a difference. Energy Star ratings on appliances were an early form of this strategy. Many fast-food outlets have eliminated trans-fatty acids, associated with coronary heart disease, after the US Food and Drug Administration proposed listing them on food labels. Agricultural interests have fought hard to prevent genetically modified organisms from being identified for the same reason. But information is empowering.
Portland and surrounding Multnomah County, Oregon have been tracking and reporting on greenhouse gas emissions. In conjunction with their energy policy (the first was written in 1979) and action plan, these measures have helped the area achieve the Kyoto Protocol goals. The area has reduced its climate impact almost to 1990 levels despite a significant increase in population (whereas the trend nationally is up by 13 per cent). On a per capita basis, the area has reduced greenhouse gases by 12.5 per cent. This received significant coverage in the media. Policy, measures, action plans and education can come together to get results.
Similarly, Oregon measures the overall health of the state with its Oregon benchmarks. These measures track social, environmental and economic indicators over the long term, including everything from teenage pregnancy to air quality and job creation. These benchmarks are linked to agencies that can affect them, with local jurisdictions having their own set of measures. In practice, these do not drive public policy and legislation to the degree they could, but they do provide a scorecard for how the state is doing.
Resources:
ICLEI: Local Governments for Sustainability, www.iclei.org, and their Cities for Climate Protection Campaign http://www.iclei.org/
Integrate sustainability into education
Sustainability requires systems thinking, the ability to envision how things are interconnected. It also requires some scientific understanding. So embedding sustainability into curricula, beginning at an early age, will be key to its success. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) has created activities for elementary and secondary schoolteachers to impart systems thinking skills to children. Many universities are now carving out niches relating to sustainability: the University of Oregon in green chemistry, Portland State University in urban design, Iowa State in sustainable agriculture, for example. Some have developed partnerships. For example, MIT, The University of Tokyo, Chalmers University of Technology and the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology have formed the Alliance for Global Sustainability to ‘promote joint research projects that will result in realistic policy proposals for the development of a civilization that can be sustained within the limitations required to preserve the global environment.
Resources:
University Leaders for a Sustainable Future, www.ulsf.org
Talloires Declaration, www.ulsf.org/programs_talloires.html
National Wildlife Federation’s ‘Campus Ecology’ programme: www.nwf.org/campusecology
Education for Sustainability Western Network, www.efswest.org
Good Company’s self-assessment ‘toolkit’, www.goodcompany.com.
Cloud Institute for Sustainability Education, www.sustainabilityed.org
Center for Ecoliteracy, www.ecoliteracy.org
